Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (b. 1115 AH/1703 CC, 'Uyaynah, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] – d. 1206 AH/1792 CC, Al-Dir'iyyah, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia]) was an Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, activist religious leader, and reformer from Najd in Central Arabia. He is the eponymous founder of the Wahhabi movement, which attempted a return to the principles of Islam as practiced by its early forebears (salaf).
Having completed his formal education in the holy city of Medina, in Arabia, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb lived abroad for many years. He taught for four years in Basra, Iraq, and, in Baghdad, he married an affluent woman whose property he inherited when she died. In 1736, in Iran, he began to teach against what he considered to be the extreme ideas of various exponents of Sufi doctrines. On returning to his native city, he wrote the Kitab al-tawhid (“Book of the Oneness [of God]”), which is the main text for Wahhabi doctrines. The centrality of the tawḥid principle to his way of thinking led adherents to characterize themselves as muwahhidun, meaning “unitarians” or “those who assert tawhid.”
ʿAbd al-Wahhab’s teachings have been characterized as puritanical and traditional, representing the early era of the Islamic religion. He rejected sources of doctrine (usul al-fiqh) apart from the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad). He made a clear stand against traditions and practices not rooted in these two sources, characterizing them as innovations (bidʿah) in Islamic faith. He insisted that the original grandeur of Islam could be regained if the Islamic community would return to the principles enunciated by the Prophet Muhammad. Wahhabi doctrines, therefore, do not allow for an intermediary between the faithful and God and condemn any such practice as polytheism (shirk). The decoration of mosques, the veneration of saints, and even the smoking of tobacco were condemned.
When the preaching of these doctrines led to controversy, ʿAbd al-Wahhab was expelled from ʿUyaynah in 1744. He then settled in Al-Dirʿiyyah, the abode of Muhammmad ibn Saud, a ruler of the Najd (now in Saudi Arabia) and the progenitor of the Saud dynasty.
The spread of Wahhabism originated from the alliance that was formed between ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud, who, by initiating a campaign of conquest that was continued by his heirs, made Wahhabism the dominant force in Arabia from 1800
The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by the followers Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab but rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics. Born to a family of jurists, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning a fairly standard curriculum of orthodox jurisprudence according to the Hanbali school of Islamic law, which was the school most prevalent in his area of birth. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the Qur'an and hadith literature rather than relying on medieval interpretations, and insisted that every Muslim – male and female – personally read and study the Qur'an. He opposed taqlid (following) and called for the use of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning through research of scripture). Being given initial rudimentary training in classical Sunni Muslim tradition, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab gradually became opposed to many popular, yet contested, religious practices such as the visitation to and veneration of the shrines and tombs of Muslim saints, which he felt amounted to heretical religious or even idolatry. His call for social reform in society was based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God), and was greatly inspired by the treatises of classical scholars Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728 AH/ 1328 CC) and Ibn Qayyim (d. 751 AH/ 1350 CC).
Despite his teachings being rejected and opposed by various critics amongst the contemporary Sunni clergy, such as his own father and brother, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab charted a religio-political pact with Muhammad ibn Saud to help him to establish the Emirate of Diriyah, the first Saudi state, and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Al ash-Sheikh, Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, and have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state, dominating the state's clerical institutions.
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged to have been born in 1703 into the sedentary and impoverished Arab clan of Banu Tamim in 'Uyayna, a village in the Najd region of central Arabia. Before the emergence of the Wahhabi movement, there was a very limited history of Islamic education in the area. For this reason, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had modest access to Islamic education during his youth. Despite this, the area had nevertheless produced several notable jurists of the Hanbali school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area. In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school," with his father, ʿAbd al-Wahhab, having been the Hanbali jurisconsult of the Najd and his grandfather, Sulayman, having been a judge of Hanbali law.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's early education came from his father, and consisted of learning the Qur'an by heart and studying a rudimentary level of Hanbali jurisprudence and Islamic theology as outlined in the works of Ibn Qudamah (d. 1223 CC), one of the most influential medieval representatives of the Hanbali school, whose works were regarded "as having great authority" in the Najd. The affirmation of Islamic sainthood and the ability of saints to perform miracles (karamat) by the grace of God had become a major aspect of Sunni Muslim belief throughout the Islamic world, being agreed-upon by a majority of the classical Islamic scholars. Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab had encountered various excessive beliefs and practices associated with saint-veneration and saint-cults which were prevalent in his area. During that era, various supernatural rituals and beliefs associated with magic, superstitions, occultism, numerology, and other such practices. had become predominant across numerous towns and villages of the Arabian Peninsula.
After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the hajj in Mecca, where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him. After this, he went to Medina, the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought." In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Najdi, who had been a supporter of the works of Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), the controversial medieval scholar whose teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided on several important points by the vast majority of Sunni Muslim scholars up to that point in history.
After leaving 'Uyayna around the age of twenty, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the Greater Pilgrimage to Mecca, where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him. After this, he went to Medina, the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought." In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ibrahim al-Najdi, who had been a supporter of the works of Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), the controversial medieval scholar whose teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided on several important points by the vast majority of Sunni Muslim scholars up to that point in history.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, 'Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to Mohammad Hayya al-Sindhi in Medina, who belonged to the Naqshbandi order (tariqa) of Sufism, and recommended him as a student. Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time. Muhammad Hayya taught Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with walis and their tombs. He also encouraged him to reject rigid imitation (taqlid) of medieval legal commentaries and develop individual research of scriptures (ijtihad). Influenced by Al-Sindi's teachings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab became critical of the established madh'hab system, prompting him to disregard the instruments of usul al-fiqh in his intellectual approach. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rarely made use of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and various legal opinions in his writings, by and large forming views based on his direct understanding of Scriptures.
Apart from his emphasis on hadith studies, aversion for the madh'hab system and disregard for technical juristic discussions involving legal principles, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's views on ziyarah (visitations to the shrines of Awliyaa) were also shaped by al-Sindhi. Al-Sindhi encouraged his student to reject folk practices associated with graves and saints. Various themes in al-Sindhi's writings, such as his opposition to erecting tombs and drawing human images, would be revived later by the Wahhabi movement. Al-Sindhi instilled in Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab the belief that practices like beseeching the dead saints constituted apostasy and resembled the customs of the people of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era). In a significant encounter between a young Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi reported by the Najdi historian 'Uthman Ibn Bishr (d. 1288 AH/1871/2 CC):
Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the Arabian Peninsula, venturing first to Basra which was still an active center of Islamic culture. During his stay in Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab studied Hadith and Fiqh under the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Majmu'i. In Basra, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab came into contact with Shi'as and would write a treatise repudiating the theological doctrines of Rafidah, an extreme sect of Shiism. He also became influenced by the writings of Hanbali theologian Ibn Rajab (d. 1393 CC/ 795 AH) such as "Kalimat al-Ikhlas" which inspired Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's seminal treatise "Kitab al-Tawhid".
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's departure from Basra marked the end of his education and by the time of his return to 'Uyayna, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had mastered various religious disciplines such as Islamic fiqh (jurisprudence), theology, hadith sciences and Tasawwuf. His exposure to various practices centered around the cult of saints and grave veneration would eventually propel Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab to grow critical of Sufi superstitious accretions and practices. Rather than targeting "Sufism" as a phenomenon or a group, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced particular practices which he considered sinful. He fashioned his reformist campaign in a manner that appealed to the socio-cultural dynamics of 18th century Arabia. Many of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's scholarly treatises, pamphlets and speeches appropriated idioms of local Arab dialects, monologues of vernacular poetry and catchphrases of folk culture into his religious discourse.
As a gifted communicator with a talent for breaking down his ideas into shorter units, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab entitled his treatises with terms such as qawaʿid ("principles"), masaʾil ("matters"), kalimat ("phrases"), or usul ("foundations"), simplifying his texts point by point for mass reading. Calling upon the people to follow his call for religious revival (tajdid) based on following the founding texts and the authoritative practices of the first generations of Muslims, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's call gradually began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. Upon returning to Huraymila, where his father had settled, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab wrote his first work on the Unity of God. With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab agreed to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. During the early years of preaching, he criticized various folk practices and superstitions peacefully through sermons. Starting from 1742, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would shift towards an activist stance; and began to implement his reformist ideas. First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the tomb of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, whose shrine was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. Third, he organized the stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.
These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.
The early Wahhabis had been protected by Ibn Mu'ammar in 'Uyayna, despite being persecuted in other settlements. As soon as Ibn Mu'ammar disowned them, Wahhabis were subject to excommunication (takfir); exposing themselves to the loss of lives and property. This experience of suffering reminded them of the mihna against Ahmad ibn Hanbal and his followers, and shaped the collective Wahhabi memory. As late as 1749, the sharif of Mecca imprisoned those Wahhabis who went to Mecca to perform the hajj (the annual pilgrimage).
Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud Al Muqrin. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to the anonymous author of Lam al-Shihab (Brilliance of the Meteor), when they first met, Ibn Saud declared:
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:
The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744. Once Al-Sa'ud made Dir'iyya a safe haven, Wahhabis from other towns took refuge. These included dissenters from the Ibn Mu'ammar clan who had sworn allegiance to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. The nucleus of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's supporters all across Najd retreated to Dir'iyyah and formed the vanguard of the insurgency launched by Al-Saud against other towns.
From a person who started his career as a lone activist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would become the spiritual guide of the nascent Emirate of Muhammad ibn Saud al-Muqrin. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues. This agreement became a mutual support pact and power-sharing arrangement between the Al Saud family and the Al ash-Sheikh and the followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. This pact has remained in effect for nearly 300 years and has provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion. Reviving the teachings of Ibn Taymiyya, the Muwahhidun (Unitarian) movement emphasized strict adherence to the Qur'an and Sunnah while simultaneously championing the conception of an Islamic state based on the model of early Muslim community in Medina. Meanwhile, it's Muslim and Western opponents derogatorily labelled the movement as the "Wahhabiyyah" (anglicised as "Wahhabism").
The 1744 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the rise of the First Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah, which was established in 1727. By offering the Al-Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion. Deducing from his bitter experiences in 'Uyaynah, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had understood the necessity of political backing from a strong Islamic political to transform the local socio-religious status quo and also safeguard Wahhabism's territorial base from external pressure. After consolidating his position in Diriyah, he wrote to the rulers and clerics of other towns appealing to them to embrace his doctrines. While some heeded his calls, others rejected it, accusing him of ignorance or sorcery.
Realizing the significance of efficient religious preaching (da'wa), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called upon his students to master the path of reasoning and proselytising over warfare to convince other Muslims of their reformist endeavour. Between 1744 and 1746, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's preaching continued in the same non-violent manner as before and spread widely across the people of Najd. Rulers of various towns across Najd pledged their allegiance to Ibn Saud. This situation changed drastically around 1158 AH/1746 CC when the powerful anti-Wahhabi chieftain of Riyadh, Dahham ibn Dawwas (fl. 1187 CC/1773 AH), attacked the town of Manfuha which had pledged allegiance to Diriyah. This would spark a nearly 30-year long war between Diriyah and Riyadh, which lasted until 1187/1773, barring some interruptions. First conquering Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud's forces expanded the Wahhabi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab.
Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb maintained that the military campaigns of the Emirate of Dir'iyya were strictly defensive and rebuked his opponents as being the first to initiate takfir (excommunication). Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had defined jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature. Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as defensive operations against their enemies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts:
In 1753–4, the Wahhabis were confronted by an alarming number of towns renouncing allegiance and aligning with their opponents. Most prominent amongst these was the town of Huraymila, which had pledged allegiance to Dir'iyah in 1747. However, by 1752, a group of rebels encouraged by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's brother, Sulayman, had initiated a coup in Huraymila and installed a new ruler that threatened to topple the Wahhābī order. A fierce war between Diriyah and Huraymila began in a magnitude that was unprecedented. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab held a convocation of Wahhabis from all the settlements across Najd. Reviewing the recent desertions and defeats, he encouraged them to hold fast to their faith and recommit to the struggle.
The ensuing battles and the re-capture of Huraymila in 1168 AH/1755 CC, constituted a significant development in Wahhabi expansionist stage. 'Abd al-Aziz, the son of Muhammad ibn Saud, had emerged as the principal leader of the Wahhabi military operations. Alongside a force of 800 men, accompanied by an additional 200 under the command of the deposed ruler of Huraymila, 'Abd al Aziz was able to subdue the rebels. More significantly, the rationale behind the campaign was based on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's newly written epistle Mufīd al-mustafīd, which marked a shift from the earlier posture of defensive jihads to justify a more aggressive one. In the treatise, compiled to justify jihad pursued by Dir'iyyah and its allies, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab excommunicated the inhabitants of Huraymila and declared it as a duty of Wahhabi soldiers to fight them as apostates. He also quoted several Qur'anic verses indicative of offensive forms of jihad.
The last point of serious threat to the Saudi state was in 1764-1765. During this period, the Isma'ili Shi'a of Najran alongside their allied tribe of 'Ujman, combined forces to inflict a major defeat on the Saudis at the Battle of Hair in October 1764, killing around 500 men. The anti-Wahhabi forces allied with the invaders and participated in the combined siege of Dirʿiyya. However, the defenders were able to hold onto their town due to the unexpected departure of the Najranis after a truce concluded with the Saudis. A decade later in 1773-'4, 'Abd al-Aziz had conquered Riyadh and secured the entirety of al-ʿArid, after its chieftain Dahham ibn Dawwas fled. By 1776/7, Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had surrendered. The capture of Riyadh marked the point at which Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab delegated all affairs of governing to 'Abd al-Aziz, withdrew from public life and devoted himself to teaching, preaching and worshipping. Meanwhile, 'Abd al-Aziz would proceed with his military campaigns, conquering towns like Sudayr (1196/1781) and al-Kharj (1199/1784). Opposition in towns to the North like al-Qasim was stamped out by 1196/1781, and the rebels in 'Unayza were subdued by 1202/1787. Further north, the town of Ha'il, was captured in 1201/1786 and, by the 1780s, the Wahhābīs were able to establish their jurisdiction over most of Najd.
After his departure from public affairs, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab would remain a consultant to 'Abd al-Aziz, who followed his recommendations. However, he withdrew from any active military and political activities of the Emirate of Diriyah and devoted himself to educational endeavors, preaching, and worship. His last major activity in state affairs was in 1202/1787; when he called on the people to give bay'ah (allegiance) to Sa'ud, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's son, as heir apparent.
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fell ill and died in June 1792 CC/1206 AH in the lunar month of Dhul-Qa'dah, at the age of eighty-nine. He was buried in an unmarked grave at al-Turayf in al-Dir'iyya. He left behind four daughters and six sons. Many of his sons became clerics of greater or lesser distinction. The descendants of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab are known as the Al as-Shaykhs and they continued to hold a special position in the Saudi state throughout its history.
A clear separation of roles between the Saudi family and the Wahhabi clerics had begun to emerge during the interval between Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's retirement from front-line politics in 1773 and his death in 1792. Although the Al as-Shaykhs did not engage in politics, they comprised a significant part of the designating group of notables who gave allegiance (bay'ah) to a new ruler and acclaimed his accession. After Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, his son 'Abd Allah, recognized by his critics as moderate and fair-minded, would succeed him as the dominant Wahhabi cleric. The Wahhabi cause would flourish for more than two decades after Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's death; until the defeat of the First Saudi State in the Ottoman-Saudi war. 'Abd Allah would spend his last days as an exile in Cairo, having witnessed the destruction of Dir'iyya and the execution of his talented son Sulayman ibn 'Abd Allah in 1818.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an affluent woman during his studies in Baghdad. When she died, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab inherited her property and wealth. Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain (d. 1809), 'Abd Allah (1751–1829), Hassan, Ali (d. 1829), Ibrahim and 'Abdulaziz who died in his youth. Four of his sons, Hussain, 'Abd Allah, Ali and Ibrahim, established religious schools close to their home in Dir'iyya and taught the young students from Yemen, Oman, Najd and other parts of Arabia at their majlis (study circle).
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also had a daughter named Fatimah, who was a revered Islamic scholar known for her piety, valor and beauty. She was a committed adherent to her father's reformist ideals and taught numerous men and women. Fatimah traveled a lot and remained unmarried throughout her life in order to research hadith sciences and concentrate on her scholarly endeavors. She witnessed the Fall of Dir'iyah and fled to Ras al-Khaimah in 1818. Ras al-Khaimah was captured by the British the following year. As a result, she was again forced to emigrate along with her nephew; this time to Oman, wherein she became a major proponent of the reformist teachings of the Muwahhidun and campaigned against various superstitions. Fatimah returned to Riyadh after the establishment of Emirate of Nejd in 1824. Due to her travels, she was often referred to by her appellation "Lady of the Two Migrations". As the daughter of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Fatimah became a role model for Arabian women active in educational efforts and various social undertakings.
The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al as-Shaykh, have historically led the ulama (the clerical establishment) of the Saudi state, dominating the state's religious institutions. Within Saudi Arabia, the members of the Al as-Shaykh are held in prestige similar to the Saudi royal family, with whom they share power, and the Al as-Shaykh has included several religious scholars and officials. The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al as-Shaykh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating the Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al as-Shaykh support the Al Saud's political authority thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.
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Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to revive and purify Islam from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the fundamental principles of the Islamic religion. His works were generally short, full of quotations from the Qur'an and hadith, such as his main and foremost theological treatise, Kitab at-Tawhid ("The Book of Oneness"). He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (tawhid), and denounced those religious beliefs and practices widespread amongst the people of Najd. Following Ibn Taymiyya's teachings on Tawhid, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed that much of Najd had descended into superstitious folk religion akin to the period of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era) and denounced much of their beliefs as polytheism (shirk). He associated such practices with the culture of Taqlid (imitation to established customs) adored by pagan-cults of Jahiliyya era. Based on the doctrine of Tawhid espoused in Kitab al-Tawhid, the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "Al-Muwahhidun" (Unitarians).
The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitab at-Tawhid, a theological treatise which draws from material in the Qur'an and the recorded doings and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the hadith literature. It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (salat); fasting (sawm); supplication (dua); seeking protection or refuge (istia'dha); seeking help (ist'ana and istigatha) of Allah.
Traditionally, many Muslims throughout history had held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of shirk (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents, and led him to accuse his adversaries who engaged in these religious practices to be apostates and idolaters (mushrikin).
Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as Al-'Udhr bil Jahl (excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of shirk (polytheism) or kufr (disbelief) cannot be excommunicated until they have direct access to Scriptural evidences and get the opportunity to understand their mistakes and retract. If not, their affairs are to be delegated only to God. Hence, he believed that education and dialogue was the only effective path for the successful implementation of reforms. Explaining this concept in various pamphlets addressed to the masses and other scholars, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:
Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever did not follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines. In a letter addressed to the Iraqi scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumors spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of taqlid (blind-following), which in his view, deviated people away from the Qur'an and sunnah. He also advocated for ijtihad of qualified scholars in accordance with the teachings of Qur'an and hadith. In his legal writings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred to a number of sources: Qur'an, hadith, opinions of companions, salaf as well as the treatises of the four schools of thought. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab argued that the Qur'an condemned blind emulation of forefathers and nowhere did it stipulate scholarly credentials for a person to refer to it directly. His advocacy of ijtihad and harsh denunciation of taqlid arose widespread condemnation from Sufi orthodoxy in Najd and beyond, compelling him to express many of his legal verdicts (fatwas) discreetly, using convincing juristic terms. He differed from the Hanbali school in various points of law and in some cases also departed from the positions of the four schools. In his treatise Usul al-Sittah (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab vehemently rebuked his detractors for raising the description of mujtahids to what he viewed as humanely unattainable levels. He condemned the establishment clergy as a class of oppressors who ran a "tyranny of wordly possessions" by exploiting the masses to make money out of their religious activities. The teachings of the Medinan hadith scholar Muhammad Hayat as Sindi highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab.
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab opposed the partisanship of the madhabs (legal schools) and did not consider it obligatory to follow a particular madhab. Rather, in his view, the obligation is to follow the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Referring to the classical scholars Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindly follow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take direction from the Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male and female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent madhab system of jurisprudence (fiqh) as a fundamentally corrupt institution. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab sought a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all Muslims to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ittiba, i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences. The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of Prophethood in his book Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-Rasul ("Abridgement of the life of the Prophet"), an extensive biographical work on the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Mukhtaṣar was written with the purpose of explaining Muhammad's role in universal history by undermining certain prophetologic conceptions that had come to prominence among Sunni religious circles during the twelfth Islamic century. These included negating those concepts and beliefs that bestowed the Prophet with mystical attributes that elevated Muhammad beyond the status of ordinary humans. In his introduction to Mukhtasar, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts that every Prophet came with the mission of upholding tawhid and prohibiting shirk. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab further tries to undermine the belief in the pre-existence of Muḥammad as a divine light preceding all other creation, a salient concept that served as an aspect of Prophetic devotion during the eleventh Islamic century. Additionally, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab omitted mentioning other episodes narrated in various sirah (Prophetic biography) works such as trees and stones allegedly expressing veneration for Muḥammad, purification of Muhammad's heart by angels, etc. which suggested that Muḥammad possessed characteristics that transcend those of ordinary humans.
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to Ibn Taymiyya's understanding of the concept of 'isma (infallibility) which insisted that ʿiṣma does not prevent prophets from committing minor sins or speaking false things. This differed from the alternative understanding of Sunni theologians like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Qadi, Iyad and others who had emphasized the complete independence of the Prophet from any form of error or sin. Following Ibn Taymiyya, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab affirmed the incident of qissat al-gharaniq (the "story of cranes" or "Satanic Verses") which demonstrated that Muhammad was afflicted by "Satanic interference. This idea of Ibn Taymiyya had been revived in the circles of the Kurdish hadith scholar Ibrahim al-Kurani (1025/1616–1101/1686), whose son Abul-Ṭahir al-Kurani was the teacher of Muhammad Hayat al-Sindi, the master of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. Using this concept to explain Tawhid al-ulūhiyya (Oneness of Worship), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the idea that anybody could act as intercessor between God and man by employing the Qur'anic verses related to the event. He also used these and other similar incidents to undermine the belief regarding prophets being completely free from sin, error, or Satanic afflictions.
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab had given little importance to Prophetic miracles in his Mukhtaṣar. Although he had not denied miracles as an expression of the Divine Omnipotence so long as they are attested by Qur'an or authentic hadith, Al-Mukhtasar represented an open protest against the exuberance of miracles that characterized later biographies of Muhammad. In Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's view, miracles are of little significance in the life of Muḥammad in comparison to that of the previous prophets, since central to his prophethood were the institutionalisation of jihad and the hudud punishments. Contrary to prevalent religious beliefs, Muḥammad was not portrayed as the central purpose of creation in the historical conception of Mukhtaṣar. Instead, he has a function within creation and for the created beings. Rather than being viewed as an extraordinary performer of miracles, Muhammad should instead be upheld as a model of emulation. By depriving the person of Muḥammad of all supernatural aspects not related to wahy (revelation) and Divine intervention, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also reinforced his rejection of beliefs and practices related to the cult of saints and veneration of graves. Thus, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's conception of history emphasized the necessity of following the role model of Muḥammad and re-establishing the Islamic order.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as Wahhabism (Arabic: Wahhabiyyah). The designation of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's doctrine as Wahhabiyyah actually derives from his father's name, ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Many adherents consider the label "Wahhabism" as a derogatory term coined by his opponents, and prefer it to be known as the Salafi movement. Modern scholars of Islamic studies point out that "Salafism" is a term applied to several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later. His early followers denominated themselves as Ahl al-Tawhid and al-Muwahhidun ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"), and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents.
The Salafiyya movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in Najd. According to professor Abdullah Saeed, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern Salafiyya movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejection of the blind following (taqlid) of earlier scholars and advocating for ijtihad.
Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles:
- Prohibition on speaking about God without 'ilm (knowledge)
- Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory
- Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures
- Rulings of halal (allowance) and haram (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous
According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic hadiths takes precedence over the opinions of any other scholar, even if it went against the agreement of the eponyms of the four madhabs. In line with these principles, he encouraged all believers to engage directly with the Scriptures while respecting ikhtilaf (scholarly differences), writing:
Throughout his epistles like Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the madhhab system, by advocating for a direct understanding of the Scriptures. Rather than rejecting madhabs outright, he sought a reformation of the system by condemning prevalent trends within the madhabs. He criticized the madhhab partisans for adhering solely to medieval fiqh manuals of later scholars and ignoring the Qur'an, hadith and opinions of early Imams. He rebuked the contemporary Shafi'i scholars for being partisans of Ibn Hajar al Haytami (d. 1566) and relying solely on his 16th-century manual Tuhfat al Muhtaj. Similarly, he critiqued the Malikis for being dependent on the Mukhtasar of the Egyptian jurist Khalil ibn Ishaq (d. 1365) rather than acting upon authentic traditions (hadith). In addition to criticizing the madhab partisans, he berated the advocates of taqlid for discouraging the practice of ijtihad and called on the laity to follow scholars only after asking for scriptural evidences. Most noticeably, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the authority of Al-Iqna and Al-Muntaha - two of the most important medieval Hanbali works for the regional clerics of Arabia - asserting:
In calling for a direct return to the Scriptures, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was not a literalist and often strongly objected to literalist approaches and ritualism of religion that came with it. He believed that pure intentions (niyyah) constituted the essence of all virtuous actions and upheld its superiority over dull ritualism. As a deferential and accomplished jurist with the experience of religious training under numerous masters in his travels, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab opposed the rigid, hardline views of the tradition-bound ulema who had excommunicated sinful, unrepenting Muslims; thereby making their blood forfeit based on their reading of the reports of Muhammad and the Companions. On the other hand, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab contextualized those reports, arguing that they must be understood in recognition of historical circumstances. According to his view, sincerity and purity of intent (ikhlas) could expiate the evil of sins committed in mistakes. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's legal approach began with hadith authentication, followed by contextualized intrapolation in consideration of Hanbali legal principles such as maslaha (public welfare). Other legal criteria involved upholding the spirit of the law, maqasid al-sharia, and intent behind pronouncing legal verdicts which addressed various themes such as societal justice and safeguarding women. He also believed in a holistic legal understanding of Qur'anic verses and hadith, distinguishing between general rules applicable for all Muslims and rulings unique to various life-time situations.
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